There’s nothing crabby about RNA sequencing – Researchers have utilized the neural networks of crabs to validate the use of RNA sequencing for the identification of single neurons. @ ´´RNA is an acronym for ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid. Many different kinds are now known.[1] RNA is physically different from DNA: DNA contains two intercoiled strands, but RNA only contains one single strand. RNA also contains different bases from DNA.´´The main function of RNA is to carry information of amino acid sequence from the genes to where proteins are assembled on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. This is done by messenger RNA (mRNA). A single strand of DNA is the blueprint for the mRNA which is transcribed from that DNA strand.´´

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Categories // Cell development biology //

There’s nothing crabby about RNA sequencing

10 DEC 2019CELL DEVELOPMENT BIOLOGY

Crab Crab

Researchers have utilized the neural networks of crabs to validate the use of RNA sequencing for the identification of single neurons.

A team of researchers, led by David Schulz (University of Missouri, MO, USA), have demonstrated the ‘clawsome’ power of RNA sequencing for the anatomical and functional identification of single neurons.

The use of RNA sequencing is widespread for the identification of cells in the nervous system. However, previous classification studies have been impeded by other features of the cells. This work aimed to validate the accuracy of single-cell transcriptional profiling for the identification of individual neurons.

Speaking to BioTechniques, Schulz commented, “RNA sequencing is, and will be, used not only to understand how neurons work under typical conditions – and what makes them distinct from one another – but also to shed light on how development, growth, learning, injury, and disease change neurons over the lifetime of an individual.”

RNA sequencing and reverse transcriptase PCR were performed on two ganglia from the crab Cancer borealis, a model in which the identified neurons had previously been classified. The team essentially worked backward from previous results to validate the use of RNA sequencing.

Schulz explained, “with known cell identity to work from, we could blind ourselves to their identities for some of the analyses and see how well unbiased statistical methods perform in terms of recapitulating known biologically/physiologically known cell identity.”

Each neuron analyzed exhibited distinct gene expression patterns; however, expression profiles were not enough to accurately identify the neurons. Unbiased clustering analysis and supervised machine learning were also integrated into this approach.

The results demonstrated that transcriptional profiling for the assignment of neuronal identity is most accurate when combined with information regarding the physiology and morphology of the cells.

Identifying and understanding the operation of a single neuron has implications for developing targeted therapies for neurodegenerative diseases. RNA sequencing has the potential to inform our knowledge of how neurons are affected by injury and disease.

Understanding the intersect between variability, environment and genetics could advance insight into how individuals are differently affected by neurological diseases, contributing to the precision medicine revolution.

The team now hopes to utilize the knowledge gained from this study to determine how neurons are affected in spinal cord injuries.

“We are working to understand how injuries and diseases that cause changes to the normal activity of neural networks affect the neuronal gene expression profiles, and what this can tell us about how even indirect effects can contribute to pathology “downstream” of the actual insult,” concluded  Schulz.

If you were interested in this post and would like to learn more, check out the Cells as Models track of our Online Event: Advancing Precision Medicine 2019  and register for free today. To get more information visit the event page here.

WRITTEN BYCaitlin Killen

SOURCENorthcutt AJ, Kick DR, Otopalik AG et al. Molecular profiling of single neurons of known identity in two ganglia from the crab Cancer borealis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1911413116 (2019);https://www.pnas.org/content/early/2019/12/04/1911413116https://news.missouri.edu/2019/think-like-a-crab/

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RNA

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 
 
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RNA is an acronym for ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid. Many different kinds are now known.[1]

RNA is physically different from DNA: DNA contains two intercoiled strands, but RNA only contains one single strand. RNA also contains different bases from DNA. These bases are the following:

(A) Adenine
(G) Guanine
(C) Cytosine
(U) Uracil

Adenine forms bonds with uracil, and guanine forms bonds with cytosine. In this way, we say that adenine is complementary to uracil and that guanine is complementary to cytosine. The first three bases are also found in DNA, but uracil replaces thymine as a complement to adenine.

RNA also contains ribose as opposed to deoxyribose found in DNA. These differences result in RNA being chemically more reactive than DNA. This makes it the more suitable molecule to take part in cell reactions.

RNA is the carrier of genetic information in certain viruses, especially the retroviruses like the HIV virus. This is the only exception to the general rule that DNA is the hereditary substance.

Protein synthesis RNAs[change | change source]

Messenger RNA[change | change source]

 
The structure of a mature eukaryotic mRNA. A fully processed mRNA includes a 5′ cap, 5′ UTR, coding region, 3′ UTR, and poly(A) tail. UTR = untranslated region

The main function of RNA is to carry information of amino acid sequence from the genes to where proteins are assembled on ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

This is done by messenger RNA (mRNA). A single strand of DNA is the blueprint for the mRNA which is transcribed from that DNA strand. The sequence of base pairs is transcribed from DNA by an enzyme called RNA polymerase. Then the mRNA moves from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm to form proteins. The mRNA translates the sequence of base pairs into a sequence of amino acids to form proteins. This process is called translation.

DNA does not leave the nucleus for various reasons. DNA is a very long molecule, and is bound in with proteins, called histones, in the chromosomes. mRNA, on the other hand is able to move and to react with various cell enzymes. Once transcribed, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and moves to the ribosomes.

Two kinds of non-coding RNAs help in the process of building proteins in the cell. They are transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

tRNA[change | change source]

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a short molecule of about 80 nucleotides which carries a specific amino acid to the polypeptide chain at a ribosome. There is a different tRNA for each amino acid. Each one has a site for the amino acid to attach, and an anti-codon to match the codon on the mRNA. For example, codons UUU or UUC code for the amino acid phenylalanine.

rRNA[change | change source]

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the catalytic component of the ribosomes. Eukaryotic ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S and 5S rRNA. Three of the rRNA molecules are synthesized in the nucleolus, and one is synthesized elsewhere. In the cytoplasm, ribosomal RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome binds mRNA and carries out protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single mRNA at any time.[2] rRNA is extremely abundant and makes up 80% of the 10 mg/ml RNA found in a typical eukaryotic cytoplasm.[3]

snRNAs[change | change source]

Small nuclear RNAs (snRNA) join with proteins to form spliceosomes. The spliceosomes govern alternative splicing. Genes code for proteins in bits called exons. The bits can be joined together in different ways to make different mRNAs. Thus, from one gene many proteins can be made. This is the process of alternative splicing. Any unwanted versions of the protein get chopped up by proteases, and the chemical bits re-used.

Regulatory RNAs[change | change source]

There are a number of RNAs which regulate genes, that is, they regulate the rate at which genes are transcribed or translated.[4]

miRNA[change | change source]

Micro RNAs (miRNA) act by joining an enzyme and blocking mRNA, or speeding its breakdown. This is called RNA interference.[5][6][7]

siRNA[change | change source]

Small interfering RNAs (sometimes called silencing RNAs) interfere with the expression of a specific gene. They are quite small (20/25 nucleotides) double-stranded molecules. Their discovery has caused a surge in biomedical research and drug development.[8][9]

Parasitic and other RNAs[change | change source]

Retrotransposons[change | change source]

Transposons are only one of several types of mobile genetic elements. Retrotransposons copy themselves in two stages: first from DNA to RNA by transcription, then from RNA back to DNA by reverse transcription. The DNA copy is then inserted into the genome in a new position. Retrotransposons behave very similarly to retroviruses, such as HIV.

Viral genomes[change | change source]

Viral genomes, which are usually RNA, take over the cell machinery and make both new viral RNA and the protein coat of the virus.

Phage genomes[change | change source]

Phage genomes are quite varied. The genetic material can be ssRNA (single-stranded RNA), dsRNA (double-stranded RNA), ssDNA (single-stranded DNA), or dsDNA (double-stranded DNA). It may be between 5 and 500 kilo base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are usually between 20 and 200 nanometers in size.

Phage genomes may code for as few as four genes,[10] and as many as hundreds of genes.

References[change | change source]

  1. ↑ Only the most important are described here. A complete list is available at en:List of RNAs.
  2. ↑ Cooper GC & Hausman RE (2004). The Cell: a molecular approach (3rd ed.). Sinauer. pp. 261–76, 297, 339–44. ISBN 0-87893-214-3. OCLC 174924833 52121379 52359301 56050609 Check |oclc= value (help).
  3. ↑ Kampers T.; et al. (1996). “RNA stimulates aggregation of microtubule-associated protein tau into Alzheimer-like paired helical filaments”. FEBS Letters. 399 (3): 104D. doi:10.1016/S0014-5793(96)01386-5. PMID 8985176. Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  4. ↑ Morris KV (2008). http://www.horizonpress.com/rnareg |chapterurl= missing title (help). RNA and the regulation of gene expression: a hidden layer of complexity. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-25-7.
  5. ↑ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006. RNA Interference
  6. ↑ Lee R.C. & Ambros V. 2001. An extensive class of small RNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans. Science 294, 862-864.
  7. ↑ Lau N.C. et al 2001. An abundant class of tiny RNAs with probable regulatory roles in Caenorhabditis elegans. Science 294, 858-862.
  8. ↑ Hamilton A. & Baulcombe D (1999). “A species of small antisense RNA in posttranscriptional gene silencing in plants”. Science. 286: 950–2. doi:10.1126/science.286.5441.950. PMID 10542148. First description of siRNAs.
  9. ↑ Hannon G. & Rossi J (2004). “Unlocking the potential of the human genome with RNA interference”. Nature. 431: 371–8. doi:10.1038/nature02870. PMID 15372045.
  10. ↑ Bacteriophage MS2
 
 

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Com certeza, precisamos ter esperança e motivação para a realização de ótimos trabalhos e para uma qualidade de vida bem melhor e uma expectativa de vida cada vez maior´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal ´´Science opens up a range of possibilities for the most varied subjects and the most varied levels of difficulties. Therefore, the full understanding of the physiological mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of diseases, highlighting the fatal diseases that occur in humans, is of paramount importance for humanity, for sure. Maybe in the near future this understanding will be very well understood and who knows, as many people dream of physical immortality, among them scientists, this great achievement can be acquired. 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PORTANTO, É DE GRANDE NECESSIDADE A REALIZAÇÃO DE NOVAS PESQUISAS CIENTÍFICAS MUITO MAIS MINUCIOSAS E MODERNAS, COM ALTO GRAU DE PRECISÃO, MESMO QUE NÃO HAJA DIFERENÇA ESTATÍSTICA SIGNIFICATIVA ENTRE DETERMINADOS FATORES. * The discussion of certain facts in science envolving stastistics is fundamental to the scientific community, for example, the analysis and interpretation of very important, innovative and interesting graphics with no statistical difference between them can have a big value to the researches and to the future researches. So, the quality and efficiency of researches can increase so much in a little time, increasing the possiblities of excellent references and new scientific discoveries. The facts veracity and the disclosure of them are essential for the scientific community, of course. Reconhecer o(s) erro(s) cometido(s) e não praticá-lo(s) novamente é um ato de grande sabedoria e importância para si mesmo e para a(s) outra(s) pessoa(s). 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Many data about it aren´t in this blog. #database #system #time #data #search #information #InternetHistory #contribuitions #improvement #analysis #intentions Intenções @ #person #people #age #longevity #work #reading #probabilities #energy #money #price #clicks #jobs #country #city #countries #cities #knowledge #HumanInterdependence #WorldHistory #communication #HumanRelations #websites #e-mails #SocialNetworks #ranking #links #images #photos #texts #messages #videos #writing #typing #speak #listen #think #feelings #ideas #ScientificDiscoveries #investigations #researches #articles #ImpactFactors #journals #citations #influence #dissertations #monographs #ScientificWorks #Inventions #graphics #subjects #books #references #blogs ´´Compreender as grandes dificuldades de um determinado assunto pode ser um processo muito demorado, porém, de grande valia para o progresso da Ciência em todos os aspectos´´ Rodrigo Nunes Cal Observação/Note: I won a scholarship by FAPEMIG during the period of ´´my´´ monograph in Uberaba. Ganhei bolsa de estudo pela FAPEMIG durante o período da ´´minha´´ monografia em Uberaba. During the period that I participated of ´´my´´ dissertation at FAMERP, I didn't win a scholarship. Já durante o mestrado que fiz na FAMERP, não ganhei bolsa de estudo. ´´Os gráficos baseados em dados da ´´minha´´ dissertação que fiz podem ser uma excelente referência para muitos tipos de pesquisas e projetos, é claro !! Por exemplo, para pesquisas e projetos que tenham como objetivo analisar os tipos de influências das idades em camundongos e humanos (estudos genéticos, por exemplo) em relação a diferentes estágios de determinadas doenças, como aquelas em que a comunidade científica desconhece (doenças desconhecidas) e que poderão surgir no mundo. Outros tipos de pesquisas e projetos que podem ser feitos são aqueles que analisam a eficácia de diversos tipos de substâncias terapêuticas em camundongos e humanos nos diversos tipos de doenças com o objetivo de saber qual a melhor substância terapêutica para cada doença, levando em consideração a idade e genética, com certeza. Contudo, realizar pesquisas com o objetivo de avaliar qual é a influência da idade e da genética na eficiência terapêutica em animais de experimentação e em humanos, consequentemente, possui um grande valor, já que muitas pessoas adoecem e acabam falecendo mesmo sendo submetidas à ótimos sistemas de diagnóstico, tratamento e prognóstico, dependendo da doença que possui e do estágio da mesma´´. ´´A partir daí, ao comprovar que há influência significativa da idade e da genética, consequentemente, no processo de patogênese de doenças nos animais de experimentação e nos humanos, seria muito mais conveniente e lógico um grupo de indivíduos de certa faixa etária e histórico familiar e individual de doenças adquiridas e possíveis de serem adquiridas no decorrer do tempo serem tratados com outros tipos de medicamentos, substâncias terapêuticas, vacinas, dentre outros. Com certeza, para a realização destes tipos de pesquisa deve haver grande investimento financeiro nos laboratórios a fim de aquisição de aparelhos científicos altamente eficientes. Com certeza, pesquisas à nível genético e com relação à influência da idade do ser vivo na patogênese de doenças, até das doenças desconhecidas pelo mundo científico. O fato é que este tipo de pesquisa é muito importante porque como todos sabem, há muitas doenças que voltam a se manifestar nas pessoas mesmo depois de excelentes tratamentos, dos mais variados tipos. E outro ponto a ser refletido é a permanência de doenças fatais´´. ´´Assim, este tipo de influência da idade e consequentemente da genética na fisiopatologia das doenças hereditárias ou não hereditárias, um indivíduo de uma determinada idade será submetido a um tratamento terapêutico diferente de outro com a mesma doença mas com idade diferente da de até a pesquisa mostrou uma influência significativa na patogênese da doença, portanto, utilizará outro tipo de substância terapêutica, medicamentos, entre outros. Isso certamente acontecerá se a comunidade científica mundial comprovar cientificamente essas hipóteses por meio de várias pesquisas e projetos científicos. As pessoas precisam ter excelentes inovações para a expectativa de vida humana aumentar muito rapidamente cada vez mais. Portanto, quanto mais a medicina personalizada for, melhor será para cada um de nós´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal ´´The graphics based on data from ´´my´´ dissertation I did can be an excellent reference for many types of researches and projects, of course!! For example, for researches and projects that the goals are analyse the type of influences of ages in mice and human (genetic studies, for example) in relation to different stages of determined diseases, like those that the scientific community do not know about them (unknown diseases). Other types of researches and projects that can be done is those that analyse the efficiency of many types of therapeutical substances in mice and human in many types of diseases with the objective of knowing which is the best therapeutic substance for each disease, taking into account age and genetics, for sure. For example, to carry out research with the objective of evaluating the influence of age and genetics on therapeutic efficiency in experimental animals and in humans´´. ´´Thus, by proving that there is a significant influence of age and genetics, consequently, in the process of pathogenesis of diseases in experimental animals and in humans, it would be much more convenient and logical to have a group of individuals of a certain age group and family and individual history of acquired diseases and possible to be acquired over time being treated with other types of drugs, therapeutic substances, vaccines, among others. Certainly, to carry out these types of research there must be a large financial investment in laboratories in order to acquire highly efficient scientific devices. Certainly, research at the genetic level and regarding the influence of the age of the living being on the pathogenesis of diseases, even diseases unknown to the scientific world. The fact is that this type of research is very important because as everyone knows, there are many diseases that come back to manifest in people even after excellent treatments, of the most varied types. And another point to be reflected on is the permanence of fatal diseases´´. ´´Taking into account this type of influence of age and consequently genetics on the pathophysiology of inherited or not inherited diseases, an individual of a certain age will be submitted to a different therapeutic treatment from another with the same disease but who has a different age than through the research has shown a significant influence on the pathogenesis of the disease, therefore, will use another type of therapeutic substance, medicine, among others. This will certainly happen if the world scientific community scientifically proves these hypotheses through various research and scientific projects. So, the people need to have excellent innovation to the human expectancy  of life increase so much faster more and more´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal Note/Obs: I thought each person could do their own friend request permission setting since Facebook's technology is so big. Eu achava que cada pessoa poderia fazer sua própria configuração de permissão de solicitação de amizade já que a tecnologia do Facebook é muito grande. Very important note: I can earn money with this blog if the person do a donation to increase the dissemination of this blog and to recognize the hard work to do it. - Observação muito importante: Posso ganhar dinheiro com este blog se alguém fizer uma doação pra mim para aumentar a divulgação deste blog e pelo reconhecimento de fazer este blog. Foi um trabalho árduo pra fazer este blog.

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