Quantum Computers Finally Beat Supercomputers in 2019 @ ´´Quantum Computing is the use of quantum-mechanical phenomena such as superposition and entanglement to perform computation. A quantum computer is used to perform such computation, which can be implemented theoretically or physically[1]:I-5 There are two main approaches to physically implementing a quantum computer currently, analog and digital. Analog approaches are further divided into quantum simulation, quantum annealing, and adiabatic quantum computation. Digital quantum computers use quantum logic gates to do computation. Both approaches use quantum bits or qubits.[1]:2–13´´

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Do the downloads!! Share!! The diffusion of very important information and knowledge is essential for the world progress always!! Thanks!!

  • – – > > Mestrado – Dissertation – Tabelas, Figuras e Gráficos – Tables, Figures and Graphics – ´´My´´ Dissertation #Innovation #Countries #Time #Researches #Reference #Graphics #Ages #Age #Mice #People #Person #Mouse #Genetics #PersonalizedMedicine #Diagnosis #Prognosis #Treatment #Disease #UnknownDiseases #Future #VeryEfficientDrugs #VeryEfficientVaccines #VeryEfficientTherapeuticalSubstances #Tests #Laboratories #Investments #Details #HumanLongevity #DNA #Cell #Memory #Physiology #Nanomedicine #Nanotechnology #Biochemistry #NewMedicalDevices #GeneticEngineering #Internet #History #Science #World

Pathol Res Pract. 2012 Jul 15;208(7):377-81. doi: 10.1016/j.prp.2012.04.006. Epub 2012 Jun 8.

The influence of physical activity in the progression of experimental lung cancer in mice

Renato Batista Paceli 1, Rodrigo Nunes Cal, Carlos Henrique Ferreira dos Santos, José Antonio Cordeiro, Cassiano Merussi Neiva, Kazuo Kawano Nagamine, Patrícia Maluf Cury


Impact_Fator-wise_Top100Science_Journals

GRUPO_AF1 – GROUP AFA1 – Aerobic Physical Activity – Atividade Física Aeróbia – ´´My´´ Dissertation – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

GRUPO AFAN 1 – GROUP AFAN1 – Anaerobic Physical Activity – Atividade Física Anaeróbia – ´´My´´ Dissertation – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

GRUPO_AF2 – GROUP AFA2 – Aerobic Physical Activity – Atividade Física Aeróbia – ´´My´´ Dissertation – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

GRUPO AFAN 2 – GROUP AFAN 2 – Anaerobic Physical Activity – Atividade Física Anaeróbia – ´´My´´ Dissertation – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

Slides – mestrado – ´´My´´ Dissertation – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

CARCINÓGENO DMBA EM MODELOS EXPERIMENTAIS

DMBA CARCINOGEN IN EXPERIMENTAL MODELS

Avaliação da influência da atividade física aeróbia e anaeróbia na progressão do câncer de pulmão experimental – Summary – Resumo – ´´My´´ Dissertation – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22683274/

Abstract

Lung cancer is one of the most incident neoplasms in the world, representing the main cause of mortality for cancer. Many epidemiologic studies have suggested that physical activity may reduce the risk of lung cancer, other works evaluate the effectiveness of the use of the physical activity in the suppression, remission and reduction of the recurrence of tumors. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of aerobic and anaerobic physical activity in the development and the progression of lung cancer. Lung tumors were induced with a dose of 3mg of urethane/kg, in 67 male Balb – C type mice, divided in three groups: group 1_24 mice treated with urethane and without physical activity; group 2_25 mice with urethane and subjected to aerobic swimming free exercise; group 3_18 mice with urethane, subjected to anaerobic swimming exercise with gradual loading 5-20% of body weight. All the animals were sacrificed after 20 weeks, and lung lesions were analyzed. The median number of lesions (nodules and hyperplasia) was 3.0 for group 1, 2.0 for group 2 and 1.5-3 (p=0.052). When comparing only the presence or absence of lesion, there was a decrease in the number of lesions in group 3 as compared with group 1 (p=0.03) but not in relation to group 2. There were no metastases or other changes in other organs. The anaerobic physical activity, but not aerobic, diminishes the incidence of experimental lung tumors.

´´We propose to change the default P-value threshold for statistical significance from 0.05 to 0.005 for claims of new discoveries.´´ https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-017-0189-z Published:  Daniel J. Benjamin, James O. Berger, […]Valen E. Johnson Nature Human Behaviour volume 2, pages6–10 (2018)

Um mundo além de p < 0,05 « Sandra Merlo – Fonoaudiologia da Fluência

´´My´´ Monografia – Monograph – Induction of benznidazole resistance in human Trypanosoma cruzi isolates – Indução de resistência ao benzonidazol em isolados humanos de Trypanosoma cruzi – UFTM – Federal University of Triangulo Mineiro – Uberaba 

Avaliação da influência da atividade física aeróbia e anaeróbia na progressão do câncer de pulmão experimental – Summary – Resumo

Article – ´´My´´ dissertation – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

Feedback positivo de pessoas sobre minha dissertação pelo Messenger – Facebook. Positive feedback of people about my dissertation, blog and YouTube channel by Facebook – Messenger. Year – Ano: 2018

LISTA DE NOMES DE PESSOAS QUE ME DERAM FEEDBACK POSITIVO SOBRE A LISTA DE EMAILS QUE FIZ EM 2015 (PROJETO) – PEOPLE´S NAMES (POSITIVE FEEDBACK ABOUT THE EMAIL LIST I DID IN 2015) – E-MAIL LIST – LISTA DE E-MAILS – PROJECT – PESQUISA -RESEARCH

My suggestion of a very important Project…

Apostila – Pubmed

A Psicossomática Psicanalítica – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

ÁCIDO HIALURÔNICO – HIALURONIC ACID – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

Slides – Mestrado final – ´´My´´ dissertation – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

Avaliação da influência da atividade física aeróbia e anaeróbia na progressão do câncer de pulmão experimental – Summary – Resumo

O Homem como Sujeito da Realidade da Saúde – Redação – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

Aula_Resultados – Results – FAMERP – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

As credenciais da ciência – The credentials of Science – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto BaixarFrases que digitei – Phrases I typed

Frases que digitei – Tecnologia – Informations about blog I did

Keynote-The-Future-of-Space-Exploration(1)

2019-01-hormone-alzheimer(1)

mojap-02-00034

ajpheart.00349.2013

aging – animal models

Nanomedicine an evolving research (Opinion article I typed)

journal-of-nanomedicine–nanotechnology-flyer

Will you embrace AI fast enough

MICROBIOLOGIA – MICROBIOLOGY – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

Genes e Epilepsia – Genes and epilepsy – Faculty of Medicine of Sao Jose do Rio Preto

Dr.A.M.S

Flav_R03

BIOGRAFIA – BIOGRAPH – DR. DOMINGO MARCOLINO BRAILE

p-Value – Valor de p

european-respiratory-society

redefine-statistical-significance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing

https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/quantum-computers-finally-beat-supercomputers-in-2019?fbclid=IwAR2muAqVqfMnSLUGET8zLah_HjUOlh5LCvAYSkhQUzJoXr_-IYBSLNhsN8U

LOG INTHE MAGAZINESHOPLOGINREGISTERSTAY CURIOUSSUBSCRIBETHE SCIENCESMINDTECHNOLOGYHEALTHENVIRONMENTPLANET EARTHTHE SCIENCES

Quantum Computers Finally Beat Supercomputers in 2019

#16 in our top science stories of 2019.

By Stephen OrnesDecember 28, 2019 1:00 PM

Jonathan Dowling, Todd Moulder - LSU

LSU physicist Jonathan Dowling (right), shown with alumnus Todd Moulder, has pushed the growth rate in quantum computing. (Credit: LSU)

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In his 2013 book, Schrödinger’s Killer App, Louisiana State University theoretical physicist Jonathan Dowling predicted what he called “super exponential growth.” He was right. Back in May, during Google’s Quantum Spring Symposium, computer engineer Hartmut Neven reported the company’s quantum computing chip had been gaining power at breakneck speed. 

The subtext: We are venturing into an age of quantum supremacy — the point at which quantum computers outperform the best classical supercomputers in solving a well-defined problem.

Engineers test the accuracy of quantum computing chips by using them to solve a problem, and then verifying the work with a classical machine. But in early 2019, that process became problematic, reported Neven, who runs Google’s Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab. Google’s quantum chip was improving so quickly that his group had to commandeer increasingly large computers — and then clusters of computers — to check its work. It’s become clear that eventually,  they’ll run out of machines. 

Case in point: Google announced in October that its 53-qubit quantum processor had needed only 200 seconds to complete a problem that would have required 10,000 years on a supercomputer.

Neven’s group observed a “double exponential” growth rate in the chip’s computing power over a few months. Plain old exponential growth is already really fast: It means that from one step to the next, the value of something multiplies. Bacterial growth can be exponential if the number of organisms doubles during an observed time interval. So can computing power of classical computers under Moore’s Law, the idea that it doubles roughly every year or two. But under double exponential growth, the exponents have exponents. That makes a world of difference: Instead of a progression from 2 to 4 to 8 to 16 to 32 bacteria, for example, a double-exponentially growing colony in the same time would grow from 2 to 4 to 16 to 256 to 65,536. 

Neven credits the growth rate to two factors: the predicted way that quantum computers improve on the computational power of classical ones, and quick improvement of quantum chips themselves. Some began referring to this growth rate as “Neven’s Law.” Some theorists say such growth was unavoidable.  

We talked to Dowling (who suggests a more fitting moniker: the “Dowling-Neven Law”) about double exponential growth, his prediction and his underappreciated Beer Theory of Quantum Mechanics. 

Q: You saw double exponential growth on the horizon long before it showed up in a lab. How?

A: Anytime there’s a new technology, if it is worthwhile, eventually it kicks into exponential growth in something. We see this with the internet, we saw this with classical computers. You eventually hit a point where all of the engineers figure out how to make this work, miniaturize it and then you suddenly run into exponential growth in terms of the hardware. If it doesn’t happen, that hardware falls off the face of the Earth as a nonviable technology. 

Q: So you weren’t surprised to see Google’s chip improving so quickly?

A: I’m only surprised that it happened earlier than I expected. In my book, I said within the next 50 to 80 years. I guessed a little too conservatively.

Q: You’re a theoretical physicist. Are you typically conservative in your predictions?

People say I’m fracking nuts when I publish this stuff. I like to think that I’m the crazy guy that always makes the least conservative prediction. I thought this was far-out wacky stuff, and I was making the most outrageous prediction. That’s why it’s taking everybody by surprise. Nobody expected double exponential growth in processing power to happen this soon.

Q: Given that quantum chips are getting so fast, can I buy my own quantum computer now?

A: Most of the people think the quantum computer is a solved problem. That we can just wait, and Google will sell you one that can do whatever you want. But no. We’re in the [prototype] era. The number of qubits is doubling every six months, but the qubits are not perfect. They fail a lot and have imperfections and so forth. But Intel and Google and IBM aren’t going to wait for perfect qubits. The people who made the [first computers] didn’t say, “We’re going to stop making bigger computers until we figure out how to make perfect vacuum tubes.”

Q: What’s the big deal about doing problems with quantum mechanics instead of classical physics? 

A: If you have 32 qubits, it’s like you have 232 parallel universes that are working on parts of your computation. Or like you have a parallel processor with 232 processors. But you only pay the electric bill in our universe. 

Q: Quantum mechanics gets really difficult, really fast. How do you deal with that?

A: Everybody has their own interpretation of quantum mechanics. Mine is the Many Beers Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. With no beer, quantum mechanics doesn’t make any sense. After one, two or three beers, it makes perfect sense. But once you get to six or 10, it doesn’t make any sense again. I’m on my first bottle, so I’m in the zone.

[This story originally appeared in print as “The Rules of the Road to Quantum Supremacy.”]

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Quantum computing

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to navigationJump to search

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Quantum computer based on superconducting qubits developed by IBM Research in Zürich, Switzerland. The device shown here will be inserted into a dilution refrigerator and cooled to under 1 kelvin.

Quantum Computing is the use of quantum-mechanical phenomena such as superposition and entanglement to perform computation. A quantum computer is used to perform such computation, which can be implemented theoretically or physically[1]:I-5 There are two main approaches to physically implementing a quantum computer currently, analog and digital. Analog approaches are further divided into quantum simulation, quantum annealing, and adiabatic quantum computation. Digital quantum computers use quantum logic gates to do computation. Both approaches use quantum bits or qubits.[1]:2–13

Qubits are fundamental to quantum computing and are somewhat analogous to bits in a classical computer. Qubits can be in a 1 or 0 quantum state. But they can also be in a superposition of the 1 and 0 states. However, when qubits are measured the result is always either a 0 or a 1; the probabilities of the two outcomes depends on the quantum state they were in.

Quantum computing began in the early 1980s, when physicist Paul Benioff proposed a quantum mechanical model of the Turing machine.[2] Richard Feynman and Yuri Manin later suggested that a quantum computer had the potential to simulate things that a classical computer could not.[3][4] In 1994, Peter Shor developed a quantum algorithm for factoring integers that had the potential to decrypt all secured communications.[5]

Despite ongoing experimental progress since the late 1990s, most researchers believe that “fault-tolerant quantum computing [is] still a rather distant dream”.[6] On 23 October 2019, Google AI, in partnership with the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), published a paper in which they claimed to have achieved quantum supremacy.[7] While some have disputed this claim, it is still a significant milestone in the history of quantum computing.[8]

The field of quantum computing is a subfield of quantum information science, which includes quantum cryptography and quantum communication.

Contents

Quantum operations[edit]

The Bloch sphere is a representation of a qubit, the fundamental building block of quantum computers.

The prevailing model of quantum computation describes the computation in terms of a network of quantum logic gates. What follows is a brief treatment of the subject based upon Chapter 4 of Nielsen and Chuang.[9]

A memory consisting of {\textstyle n}{\textstyle n} bits of information has {\textstyle 2^{n}}{\textstyle 2^{n}} possible states. A vector representing all memory states has hence {\textstyle 2^{n}}{\textstyle 2^{n}} entries (one for each state). This vector should be viewed as a probability vector and represents the fact that the memory is to be found in a particular state.

In the classical view, one entry would have a value of 1 (i.e. a 100% probability of being in this state) and all other entries would be zero. In quantum mechanics, probability vectors are generalized to density operators. This is the technically rigorous mathematical foundation for quantum logic gates, but the intermediate quantum state vector formalism is usually introduced first because it is conceptually simpler. This article focuses on the quantum state vector formalism for simplicity.

We begin by considering a simple memory consisting of only one bit. This memory may be found in one of two states: the zero state or the one state. We may represent the state of this memory using Dirac notation so that{\displaystyle |0\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}};\quad |1\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}}{\displaystyle |0\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\end{pmatrix}};\quad |1\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\end{pmatrix}}}A quantum memory may then be found in any quantum superposition {\textstyle |\psi \rangle }{\textstyle |\psi \rangle } of the two classical states {\textstyle |0\rangle }{\textstyle |0\rangle } and {\textstyle |1\rangle }{\textstyle |1\rangle }:{\displaystyle |\psi \rangle :=\alpha \,|0\rangle +\beta \,|1\rangle ={\begin{pmatrix}\alpha \\\beta \end{pmatrix}};\quad |\alpha |^{2}+|\beta |^{2}=1.}{\displaystyle |\psi \rangle :=\alpha \,|0\rangle +\beta \,|1\rangle ={\begin{pmatrix}\alpha \\\beta \end{pmatrix}};\quad |\alpha |^{2}+|\beta |^{2}=1.}In general, the coefficients {\textstyle \alpha }{\textstyle \alpha } and {\textstyle \beta }{\textstyle \beta } are complex numbers. In this scenario, one qubit of information is said to be encoded into the quantum memory. The state {\textstyle |\psi \rangle }{\textstyle |\psi \rangle } is not itself a probability vector but can be connected with a probability vector via a measurement operation. If the quantum memory is measured to determine if the state is {\textstyle |0\rangle }{\textstyle |0\rangle } or {\textstyle |1\rangle }{\textstyle |1\rangle } (this is known as a computational basis measurement), the zero state would be observed with probability {\textstyle |\alpha |^{2}}{\textstyle |\alpha |^{2}} and the one state with probability {\textstyle |\beta |^{2}}{\textstyle |\beta |^{2}}. The numbers {\textstyle \alpha }{\textstyle \alpha } and {\textstyle \beta }{\textstyle \beta } are called quantum amplitudes.

The state of this one-qubit quantum memory can be manipulated by applying quantum logic gates, analogous to how classical memory can be manipulated with classical logic gates. One important gate for both classical and quantum computation is the NOT gate, which can be represented by a matrix{\displaystyle X:={\begin{pmatrix}0&1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}.}{\displaystyle X:={\begin{pmatrix}0&1\\1&0\end{pmatrix}}.}Mathematically, the application of such a logic gate to a quantum state vector is modelled with matrix multiplication. Thus {\textstyle X|0\rangle =|1\rangle }{\textstyle X|0\rangle =|1\rangle } and {\textstyle X|1\rangle =|0\rangle }{\textstyle X|1\rangle =|0\rangle }.

The mathematics of single qubit gates can be extended to operate on multiqubit quantum memories in two important ways. One way is simply to select a qubit and apply that gate to the target qubit whilst leaving the remainder of the memory unaffected. Another way is to apply the gate to its target only if another part of the memory is in a desired state. These two choices can be illustrated using another example. The possible states of a two-qubit quantum memory are{\displaystyle |00\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}};\quad |01\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}};\quad |10\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}};\quad |11\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}.}{\displaystyle |00\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}1\\0\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}};\quad |01\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}0\\1\\0\\0\end{pmatrix}};\quad |10\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\1\\0\end{pmatrix}};\quad |11\rangle :={\begin{pmatrix}0\\0\\0\\1\end{pmatrix}}.}The CNOT gate can then be represented using the following matrix:{\displaystyle CNOT:={\begin{pmatrix}1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&0&1\\0&0&1&0\end{pmatrix}}.}{\displaystyle CNOT:={\begin{pmatrix}1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&0&1\\0&0&1&0\end{pmatrix}}.}As a mathematical consequence of this definition, {\textstyle CNOT|00\rangle =|00\rangle }{\textstyle CNOT|00\rangle =|00\rangle }, {\textstyle CNOT|01\rangle =|01\rangle }{\textstyle CNOT|01\rangle =|01\rangle }, {\textstyle CNOT|10\rangle =|11\rangle }{\textstyle CNOT|10\rangle =|11\rangle }, and {\textstyle CNOT|11\rangle =|10\rangle }{\textstyle CNOT|11\rangle =|10\rangle }. In other words, the CNOT applies a NOT gate ({\textstyle X}{\textstyle X} from before) to the second qubit if and only if the first qubit is in the state {\textstyle |1\rangle }{\textstyle |1\rangle }. If the first qubit is {\textstyle |0\rangle }{\textstyle |0\rangle }, nothing is done to either qubit.

In summary, a quantum computation can be described as a network of quantum logic gates and measurements. Any measurement can be deferred to the end of a quantum computation, though this deferment may come at a computational cost. Because of this possibility of deferring a measurement, most quantum circuits depict a network consisting only of quantum logic gates and no measurements. More information can be found in the following articles: universal quantum computer, Shor’s algorithm, Grover’s algorithm, Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm, amplitude amplification, quantum Fourier transform, quantum gate, quantum adiabatic algorithm and quantum error correction.

Any quantum computation can be represented as a network of quantum logic gates from a fairly small family of gates. A choice of gate family that enables this construction is known as a universal gate set. One common such set includes all single-qubit gates as well as the CNOT gate from above. This means any quantum computation can be performed by executing a sequence of single-qubit gates together with CNOT gates. Though this gate set is infinite, it can be replaced with a finite gate set by appealing to the Solovay-Kitaev theorem.

Potential[edit]

Cryptography[edit]

Integer factorization, which underpins the security of public key cryptographic systems, is believed to be computationally infeasible with an ordinary computer for large integers if they are the product of few prime numbers (e.g., products of two 300-digit primes).[10] By comparison, a quantum computer could efficiently solve this problem using Shor’s algorithm to find its factors. This ability would allow a quantum computer to break many of the cryptographic systems in use today, in the sense that there would be a polynomial time (in the number of digits of the integer) algorithm for solving the problem. In particular, most of the popular public key ciphers are based on the difficulty of factoring integers or the discrete logarithm problem, both of which can be solved by Shor’s algorithm. In particular, the RSA, Diffie–Hellman, and elliptic curve Diffie–Hellman algorithms could be broken. These are used to protect secure Web pages, encrypted email, and many other types of data. Breaking these would have significant ramifications for electronic privacy and security.

However, other cryptographic algorithms do not appear to be broken by those algorithms.[11][12] Some public-key algorithms are based on problems other than the integer factorization and discrete logarithm problems to which Shor’s algorithm applies, like the McEliece cryptosystem based on a problem in coding theory.[11][13] Lattice-based cryptosystems are also not known to be broken by quantum computers, and finding a polynomial time algorithm for solving the dihedral hidden subgroup problem, which would break many lattice based cryptosystems, is a well-studied open problem.[14] It has been proven that applying Grover’s algorithm to break a symmetric (secret key) algorithm by brute force requires time equal to roughly 2n/2 invocations of the underlying cryptographic algorithm, compared with roughly 2n in the classical case,[15] meaning that symmetric key lengths are effectively halved: AES-256 would have the same security against an attack using Grover’s algorithm that AES-128 has against classical brute-force search (see Key size).

Quantum cryptography could potentially fulfill some of the functions of public key cryptography. Quantum-based cryptographic systems could, therefore, be more secure than traditional systems against quantum hacking.[16]

Quantum search[edit]

Besides factorization and discrete logarithms, quantum algorithms offering a more than polynomial speedup over the best known classical algorithm have been found for several problems,[17] including the simulation of quantum physical processes from chemistry and solid state physics, the approximation of Jones polynomials, and solving Pell’s equation. No mathematical proof has been found that shows that an equally fast classical algorithm cannot be discovered, although this is considered unlikely.[18] However, quantum computers offer polynomial speedup for some problems. The most well-known example of this is quantum database search, which can be solved by Grover’s algorithm using quadratically fewer queries to the database than that are required by classical algorithms. In this case, the advantage is not only provable but also optimal, it has been shown that Grover’s algorithm gives the maximal possible probability of finding the desired element for any number of oracle lookups. Several other examples of provable quantum speedups for query problems have subsequently been discovered, such as for finding collisions in two-to-one functions and evaluating NAND trees.

Problems that can be addressed with Grover’s algorithm have the following properties:

  1. There is no searchable structure in the collection of possible answers,
  2. The number of possible answers to check is the same as the number of inputs to the algorithm, and
  3. There exists a boolean function which evaluates each input and determines whether it is the correct answer

For problems with all these properties, the running time of Grover’s algorithm on a quantum computer will scale as the square root of the number of inputs (or elements in the database), as opposed to the linear scaling of classical algorithms. A general class of problems to which Grover’s algorithm can be applied[19] is Boolean satisfiability problem. In this instance, the database through which the algorithm is iterating is that of all possible answers. An example (and possible) application of this is a password cracker that attempts to guess the password or secret key for an encrypted file or system. Symmetric ciphers such as Triple DES and AES are particularly vulnerable to this kind of attack.[citation needed] This application of quantum computing is a major interest of government agencies.[20]

Quantum simulation[edit]

Since chemistry and nanotechnology rely on understanding quantum systems, and such systems are impossible to simulate in an efficient manner classically, many believe quantum simulation will be one of the most important applications of quantum computing.[21] Quantum simulation could also be used to simulate the behavior of atoms and particles at unusual conditions such as the reactions inside a collider.[22]

Quantum annealing and adiabatic optimization[edit]

Quantum annealing or Adiabatic quantum computation relies on the adiabatic theorem to undertake calculations. A system is placed in the ground state for a simple Hamiltonian, which is slowly evolved to a more complicated Hamiltonian whose ground state represents the solution to the problem in question. The adiabatic theorem states that if the evolution is slow enough the system will stay in its ground state at all times through the process.

Solving linear equations[edit]

The Quantum algorithm for linear systems of equations or “HHL Algorithm”, named after its discoverers Harrow, Hassidim, and Lloyd, is expected to provide speedup over classical counterparts.[23]

Quantum supremacy[edit]

John Preskill has introduced the term quantum supremacy to refer to the hypothetical speedup advantage that a quantum computer would have over a classical computer in a certain field.[24] Google announced in 2017 that it expected to achieve quantum supremacy by the end of the year though that did not happen. IBM said in 2018 that the best classical computers will be beaten on some practical task within about five years and views the quantum supremacy test only as a potential future benchmark.[25] Although skeptics like Gil Kalai doubt that quantum supremacy will ever be achieved,[26][27] in October 2019, a Sycamore processor created in conjunction with Google AI Quantum was reported to have achieved quantum supremacy,[28] with calculations more than 3,000,000 times as fast as those of Summit, generally considered the world’s fastest computer.[29] Bill Unruh doubted the practicality of quantum computers in a paper published back in 1994.[30] Paul Davies argued that a 400-qubit computer would even come into conflict with the cosmological information bound implied by the holographic principle.[31]

Obstacles[edit]

There are a number of technical challenges in building a large-scale quantum computer,.[32] David DiVincenzo listed the following requirements for a practical quantum computer:[33]

  • scalable physically to increase the number of qubits;
  • qubits that can be initialized to arbitrary values;
  • quantum gates that are faster than decoherence time;
  • universal gate set;
  • qubits that can be read easily.

Sourcing parts for quantum computers is very difficult: Quantum computers need Helium-3, a nuclear research byproduct, and special cables that are only made by a single company in Japan.[34]

Quantum decoherence[edit]

Main article: Quantum decoherence

One of the greatest challenges is controlling or removing quantum decoherence. This usually means isolating the system from its environment as interactions with the external world cause the system to decohere. However, other sources of decoherence also exist. Examples include the quantum gates, and the lattice vibrations and background thermonuclear spin of the physical system used to implement the qubits. Decoherence is irreversible, as it is effectively non-unitary, and is usually something that should be highly controlled, if not avoided. Decoherence times for candidate systems in particular, the transverse relaxation time T2 (for NMR and MRI technology, also called the dephasing time), typically range between nanoseconds and seconds at low temperature.[35] Currently, some quantum computers require their qubits to be cooled to 20 millikelvins in order to prevent significant decoherence.[36]

As a result, time-consuming tasks may render some quantum algorithms inoperable, as maintaining the state of qubits for a long enough duration will eventually corrupt the superpositions.[37]

These issues are more difficult for optical approaches as the timescales are orders of magnitude shorter and an often-cited approach to overcoming them is optical pulse shaping. Error rates are typically proportional to the ratio of operating time to decoherence time, hence any operation must be completed much more quickly than the decoherence time.

As described in the Quantum threshold theorem, if the error rate is small enough, it is thought to be possible to use quantum error correction to suppress errors and decoherence. This allows the total calculation time to be longer than the decoherence time if the error correction scheme can correct errors faster than decoherence introduces them. An often cited figure for the required error rate in each gate for fault-tolerant computation is 10−3, assuming the noise is depolarizing.

Meeting this scalability condition is possible for a wide range of systems. However, the use of error correction brings with it the cost of a greatly increased number of required qubits. The number required to factor integers using Shor’s algorithm is still polynomial, and thought to be between L and L2, where L is the number of qubits in the number to be factored; error correction algorithms would inflate this figure by an additional factor of L. For a 1000-bit number, this implies a need for about 104 bits without error correction.[38] With error correction, the figure would rise to about 107 bits. Computation time is about L2 or about 107 steps and at 1 MHz, about 10 seconds.

A very different approach to the stability-decoherence problem is to create a topological quantum computer with anyons, quasi-particles used as threads and relying on braid theory to form stable logic gates.[39][40]

Physicist Mikhail Dyakonov has expressed skepticism of quantum computing as follows:So the number of continuous parameters describing the state of such a useful quantum computer at any given moment must be… about 10300… Could we ever learn to control the more than 10300 continuously variable parameters defining the quantum state of such a system? My answer is simple. No, never.[41]

Developments[edit]

Quantum computing models[edit]

There are a number of quantum computing models, distinguished by the basic elements in which the computation is decomposed. The four main models of practical importance are:

The quantum Turing machine is theoretically important but the direct implementation of this model is not pursued. All four models of computation have been shown to be equivalent; each can simulate the other with no more than polynomial overhead.

Physical realizations[edit]

For physically implementing a quantum computer, many different candidates are being pursued, among them (distinguished by the physical system used to realize the qubits):

A large number of candidates demonstrates that the topic, in spite of rapid progress, is still in its infancy. There is also a vast amount of flexibility.

Relation to computational complexity theory[edit]

Main article: Quantum complexity theoryThe suspected relationship of BQP to other problem spaces.[60]

The class of problems that can be efficiently solved by quantum computers is called BQP, for “bounded error, quantum, polynomial time”. Quantum computers only run probabilistic algorithms, so BQP on quantum computers is the counterpart of BPP (“bounded error, probabilistic, polynomial time”) on classical computers. It is defined as the set of problems solvable with a polynomial-time algorithm, whose probability of error is bounded away from one half.[61] A quantum computer is said to “solve” a problem if, for every instance, its answer will be right with high probability. If that solution runs in polynomial time, then that problem is in BQP.

BQP is contained in the complexity class #P (or more precisely in the associated class of decision problems P#P),[62] which is a subclass of PSPACE.

BQP is suspected to be disjoint from NP-complete and a strict superset of P, but that is not known. Both integer factorization and discrete log are in BQP. Both of these problems are NP problems suspected to be outside BPP, and hence outside P. Both are suspected to not be NP-complete. There is a common misconception that quantum computers can solve NP-complete problems in polynomial time. That is not known to be true, and is generally suspected to be false.[62]

The capacity of a quantum computer to accelerate classical algorithms has rigid limits—upper bounds of quantum computation’s complexity. The overwhelming part of classical calculations cannot be accelerated on a quantum computer.[63] A similar fact prevails for particular computational tasks, like the search problem, for which Grover’s algorithm is optimal.[64]

Bohmian Mechanics is a non-local hidden variable interpretation of quantum mechanics. It has been shown that a non-local hidden variable quantum computer could implement a search of an N-item database at most in {\displaystyle O({\sqrt[{3}]{N}})}{\displaystyle O({\sqrt[{3}]{N}})} steps. This is slightly faster than the {\displaystyle O({\sqrt {N}})}O({\sqrt {N}}) steps taken by Grover’s algorithm. Neither search method will allow quantum computers to solve NP-Complete problems in polynomial time.[65]

Although quantum computers may be faster than classical computers for some problem types, those described above cannot solve any problem that classical computers cannot already solve. A Turing machine can simulate these quantum computers, so such a quantum computer could never solve an undecidable problem like the halting problem. The existence of “standard” quantum computers does not disprove the Church–Turing thesis.[66] It has been speculated that theories of quantum gravity, such as M-theory or loop quantum gravity, may allow even faster computers to be built. Currently, defining computation in such theories is an open problem due to the problem of time, i.e., there currently exists no obvious way to describe what it means for an observer to submit input to a computer and later receive output.[67][68]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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Rodrigo Nunes Cal ´´A Ciência abre um leque de possibilidades dos mais variados assuntos e dos mais variados níveis de dificuldades. Sendo assim, a compreensão total dos mecanismos fisiológicos envolvidos na patogênese das doenças, destacando-se as doenças fatais que ocorrem em humanos, é de suma importância para a humanidade, com toda certeza. Quem sabe num futuro próximo essa compreensão seja muito bem entendida e quem sabe, como muitas pessoas sonham na imortalidade física, dentre elas cientistas, essa grande conquista pode ser adquirida. Como você sabe, a humanidade necessita urgentemente de novas descobertas científicas, destacando-se a aquisição de medicamentos e vacinas altamente eficazes contra um grande número de doenças, dentre elas as doenças desconhecidas e silenciosas, a obtenção de aparelhos médicos muito eficientes de diagnóstico, prognóstico e tratamento de doenças, entre outros. Com certeza, precisamos ter esperança e motivação para a realização de ótimos trabalhos e para uma qualidade de vida bem melhor e uma expectativa de vida cada vez maior´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal ´´Science opens up a range of possibilities for the most varied subjects and the most varied levels of difficulties. Therefore, the full understanding of the physiological mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of diseases, highlighting the fatal diseases that occur in humans, is of paramount importance for humanity, for sure. Maybe in the near future this understanding will be very well understood and who knows, as many people dream of physical immortality, among them scientists, this great achievement can be acquired. As you know, humanity urgently needs new scientific discoveries, highlighting the acquisition of highly effective medicines and vaccines against a large number of diseases, including unknown and silent diseases, obtaining very efficient medical devices for diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of diseases, among others. Certainly, we need to have hope and motivation to do great work and for a much better quality of life and an ever-increasing life expectancy´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal - Note: The statistics on the number of people who visited this blog in 2018 were not entirely based on real visitors. As estatísticas sobre número de pessoas que acessaram este blog no ano de 2018 não foram totalmente baseadas em visitantes reais. ´´Great difficulties may have come, but it is of great importance to have in mind the possibility of great victories in the future, bringing happiness and health for a long time´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal ´´O caminho muito desconhecido pode ser o melhor caminho a seguir na vida´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal ´´Understanding the great difficulties of a given subject can be a very long process, however, of great value for the progress of Science in all aspects´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal ´´Entender as grandes dificuldades de um determinado assunto pode ser um processo muito longo, mas de grande valor para o progresso da Ciência em todos os seus aspectos´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal My Curriculum Lattes: http://buscatextual.cnpq.br/buscatextual/visualizacv.do?id=K4240145A2 My Facebook Page: www.facebook.com/scientificblog IT´S A VERY EASY, FAST AND PRACTICAL WAY TO KNOW EXCELLENT INFORMATION ABOUT SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATION, AS AN EXAMPLE, APPLYING THE SEARCH MECHANISM Ctrl + F IN THIS BLOG FOR A WORD OR WORDS. SO, THIS BLOG SHARING IS VERY IMPORTANT TO THE WORLD SOCIETY! I hope in some way with this blog to help significantly in the socio-economic and technical-scientific development of the countries. E-mails: rodrigoncal1984@gmail.com rodrigonunescal@yahoo.com calrodrigonunes@gmail.com rodrigoncal1984@yahoo.com ´´NÃO VÁ PARA ONDE O CAMINHO PODE TE LEVAR. VÁ ONDE NÃO HÁ CAMINHO E DEIXE UMA TRILHA. ´´ ´´DON'T GO WHERE THE PATH CAN TAKE YOU. GO WHERE THERE IS NO PATH AND LEAVE A TRAIL. ´´ @ KNOWING THE UNKNOWN.. CONHECENDO O DESCONHECIDO.. The world needs very innovative ideas to people live better and longer more and more. I have been invited as a Speaker/Delegate in numerous International Conferences and Congresses. * DISCOVERING HOW THE INITIAL STAGES OF A CERTAIN DISEASES WORK, SUCH AS A FATAL DISEASES, IS OF HUGE IMPORTANCE FOR SCIENCE, FOR SURE. THERE ARE SEVERAL BIOLOGICAL FACTORS CONNECTED IN THE HUMAN BODY THAT ACTING IN A VERY COMPLEX FORM. THEREFORE, IT IS OF GREAT NECESSITY TO CARRY OUT NEW SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES MUCH MORE DETAILED AND MODERN, WITH A HIGH DEGREE OF PRECISION, EVEN IF THERE IS NO SIGNIFICANT STATISTICAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CERTAIN FACTORS. * DESCOBRIR COMO FUNCIONA OS ESTÁGIOS INICIAIS DE DETERMINADAS DOENÇAS, TAIS COMO AS DOENÇAS FATAIS, É DE ENORME IMPORTÂNCIA PARA A CIÊNCIA , COM CERTEZA. HÁ VÁRIOS FATORES BIOLÓGICOS INTERLIGADOS NO CORPO HUMANO QUE ATUAM DE FORMA MUITO COMPLEXA. PORTANTO, É DE GRANDE NECESSIDADE A REALIZAÇÃO DE NOVAS PESQUISAS CIENTÍFICAS MUITO MAIS MINUCIOSAS E MODERNAS, COM ALTO GRAU DE PRECISÃO, MESMO QUE NÃO HAJA DIFERENÇA ESTATÍSTICA SIGNIFICATIVA ENTRE DETERMINADOS FATORES. * The discussion of certain facts in science envolving stastistics is fundamental to the scientific community, for example, the analysis and interpretation of very important, innovative and interesting graphics with no statistical difference between them can have a big value to the researches and to the future researches. So, the quality and efficiency of researches can increase so much in a little time, increasing the possiblities of excellent references and new scientific discoveries. The facts veracity and the disclosure of them are essential for the scientific community, of course. Reconhecer o(s) erro(s) cometido(s) e não praticá-lo(s) novamente é um ato de grande sabedoria e importância para si mesmo e para a(s) outra(s) pessoa(s). Acknowledging mistakes and not doing them again is an act of great wisdom and importance for yourself and to the other person or people. ´´O IMPOSSÍVEL PODE SER POSSÍVEL´´. ´´THE IMPOSSIBLE CAN BE POSSIBLE´´. I have received positive feedbacks about this blog by LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, E-mails and Instagram. ´´EVERYONE DIES. THE GOAL IS NOT TO LIVE FOREVER. THE GOAL S TO CREATE SOMETHING THAT WILL´´ # time #time #internet #technologies #HighTechnologies #Cell Phones #Computer #Notebook  # Television #radio #communication #tempo  #InternetSociety # Society #person # people # age #ages #genetics #longevity #investigations #researches #efficiency #projects #ideas #reference #references #article #articles #journal # journals #magazines #websites #blogs #sites #links #SocialNetworks #energy #graphics #dissertation #monograph #citations #ImpactFactor #pesquisa #pesquisas #tecnologias #DiferentesPercepções #DifferentPerceptions #mind #mente #minds #MentesHumanas #emails #email e-mails reading #MenteHumana leitura mensagem mensagens probabilidade(s) probabilities messages message importance importância relevância assunto(s) subject subjects issue tema reflexão reflections vision visão pioneirismo pionners prêmio(s) prizes awards innovations inovações Grupos de Estudo Grupos Controle saúde doença(s) nome(s) tempo(s) Início da doença - Momento inicial da doença - Momento(s) inicial(ais) da(s) doença(s) humana(s) - Semelhança genética com camundongos - Mice researches - vaccines - drugs - eficiência - medicamento(s) - vacina(s) - High efficiency - Fatal diseases - Doenças fatais - Investments - investimentos - laboratórios - industries - indústrias - laboratories - Centros de Pesquisa - Países - cidades - cities - longevidade - desafio(s) - challenges - gráficos detalhados - interações biológicas - fatores biológicas - análise minuciosa - Very detailed analysis @ Initial moment of disease - Initial moments of human diseases - No Name @ discussion - discussão científica - science facts - detailed graphics - fatos científicos - publicação de trabalhos científicos - publications - hard work - better results - better science - diagnóstico - prognósticos - Diferença Estatística Significativa 100 Diferença Estatística Significativa @ Significant Statistical Difference - V X I Interpretations interpretações intenções intenions countries EU 100 gene Sem genes Cem genes 1 0 0 gene(s) time(s) times 100 limites limite(s) limits 1 0 0 limit NO LIMIT 10 0 @ 100 genes @ 100 gene & NO GENE NO TEMPO NOS TEMPOS NO(S) TEMPO(S) NOS TIMES NO TIME 100 GENE No Time # no time @ nos genes no(s) gene(s) * no(s) limite(s) - words- palavra(s) - listen - write - type - fala - escuta - ler - virtualidade - virtuality - reality - realidade - mundo real - mundo virtual - vida real - virtual life - real life - vida virtual - imaginations - thoughts - pensamento(s) - imaginações - melhoria - improvement - respect - respeito - speak - nome(s) - trabalho(s) - dinheiro - money - team - equipe - objetivo(s) - Best Universities of the World - Scientific Discoveries - Brazil - World - RNA - Cell - DNA - Idade biológica - biological age - pessoas - idade - idade(s) - pessoa - História da Computação Mundial - Harvard - Names - Places - City - researches - scientists - professors - pesquisador(es) - cientistas - professores - professor(es) - Produção científica - Fatores de Impacto - feelings - logic - sentimento(s) - lógica - história - world history - difficulties - dificuldades - Scientific community - comunidade científica mundial - vidas humanas - vida(s) humana(s) - trabalho(s) - human lives - life - human life - única - one life - person people @ momentos - moments memories memory memória longevidade energias energia(s) Many people liked my Twitter and Facebook comments that I informed this blog like great professors, scientists and researchers around the world who work in human health area! Many data about it aren´t in this blog. #database #system #time #data #search #information #InternetHistory #contribuitions #improvement #analysis #intentions Intenções @ #person #people #age #longevity #work #reading #probabilities #energy #money #price #clicks #jobs #country #city #countries #cities #knowledge #HumanInterdependence #WorldHistory #communication #HumanRelations #websites #e-mails #SocialNetworks #ranking #links #images #photos #texts #messages #videos #writing #typing #speak #listen #think #feelings #ideas #ScientificDiscoveries #investigations #researches #articles #ImpactFactors #journals #citations #influence #dissertations #monographs #ScientificWorks #Inventions #graphics #subjects #books #references #blogs ´´Compreender as grandes dificuldades de um determinado assunto pode ser um processo muito demorado, porém, de grande valia para o progresso da Ciência em todos os aspectos´´ Rodrigo Nunes Cal Observação/Note: I won a scholarship by FAPEMIG during the period of ´´my´´ monograph in Uberaba. Ganhei bolsa de estudo pela FAPEMIG durante o período da ´´minha´´ monografia em Uberaba. During the period that I participated of ´´my´´ dissertation at FAMERP, I didn't win a scholarship. Já durante o mestrado que fiz na FAMERP, não ganhei bolsa de estudo. ´´Os gráficos baseados em dados da ´´minha´´ dissertação que fiz podem ser uma excelente referência para muitos tipos de pesquisas e projetos, é claro !! Por exemplo, para pesquisas e projetos que tenham como objetivo analisar os tipos de influências das idades em camundongos e humanos (estudos genéticos, por exemplo) em relação a diferentes estágios de determinadas doenças, como aquelas em que a comunidade científica desconhece (doenças desconhecidas) e que poderão surgir no mundo. Outros tipos de pesquisas e projetos que podem ser feitos são aqueles que analisam a eficácia de diversos tipos de substâncias terapêuticas em camundongos e humanos nos diversos tipos de doenças com o objetivo de saber qual a melhor substância terapêutica para cada doença, levando em consideração a idade e genética, com certeza. Contudo, realizar pesquisas com o objetivo de avaliar qual é a influência da idade e da genética na eficiência terapêutica em animais de experimentação e em humanos, consequentemente, possui um grande valor, já que muitas pessoas adoecem e acabam falecendo mesmo sendo submetidas à ótimos sistemas de diagnóstico, tratamento e prognóstico, dependendo da doença que possui e do estágio da mesma´´. ´´A partir daí, ao comprovar que há influência significativa da idade e da genética, consequentemente, no processo de patogênese de doenças nos animais de experimentação e nos humanos, seria muito mais conveniente e lógico um grupo de indivíduos de certa faixa etária e histórico familiar e individual de doenças adquiridas e possíveis de serem adquiridas no decorrer do tempo serem tratados com outros tipos de medicamentos, substâncias terapêuticas, vacinas, dentre outros. Com certeza, para a realização destes tipos de pesquisa deve haver grande investimento financeiro nos laboratórios a fim de aquisição de aparelhos científicos altamente eficientes. Com certeza, pesquisas à nível genético e com relação à influência da idade do ser vivo na patogênese de doenças, até das doenças desconhecidas pelo mundo científico. O fato é que este tipo de pesquisa é muito importante porque como todos sabem, há muitas doenças que voltam a se manifestar nas pessoas mesmo depois de excelentes tratamentos, dos mais variados tipos. E outro ponto a ser refletido é a permanência de doenças fatais´´. ´´Assim, este tipo de influência da idade e consequentemente da genética na fisiopatologia das doenças hereditárias ou não hereditárias, um indivíduo de uma determinada idade será submetido a um tratamento terapêutico diferente de outro com a mesma doença mas com idade diferente da de até a pesquisa mostrou uma influência significativa na patogênese da doença, portanto, utilizará outro tipo de substância terapêutica, medicamentos, entre outros. Isso certamente acontecerá se a comunidade científica mundial comprovar cientificamente essas hipóteses por meio de várias pesquisas e projetos científicos. As pessoas precisam ter excelentes inovações para a expectativa de vida humana aumentar muito rapidamente cada vez mais. Portanto, quanto mais a medicina personalizada for, melhor será para cada um de nós´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal ´´The graphics based on data from ´´my´´ dissertation I did can be an excellent reference for many types of researches and projects, of course!! For example, for researches and projects that the goals are analyse the type of influences of ages in mice and human (genetic studies, for example) in relation to different stages of determined diseases, like those that the scientific community do not know about them (unknown diseases). Other types of researches and projects that can be done is those that analyse the efficiency of many types of therapeutical substances in mice and human in many types of diseases with the objective of knowing which is the best therapeutic substance for each disease, taking into account age and genetics, for sure. For example, to carry out research with the objective of evaluating the influence of age and genetics on therapeutic efficiency in experimental animals and in humans´´. ´´Thus, by proving that there is a significant influence of age and genetics, consequently, in the process of pathogenesis of diseases in experimental animals and in humans, it would be much more convenient and logical to have a group of individuals of a certain age group and family and individual history of acquired diseases and possible to be acquired over time being treated with other types of drugs, therapeutic substances, vaccines, among others. Certainly, to carry out these types of research there must be a large financial investment in laboratories in order to acquire highly efficient scientific devices. Certainly, research at the genetic level and regarding the influence of the age of the living being on the pathogenesis of diseases, even diseases unknown to the scientific world. The fact is that this type of research is very important because as everyone knows, there are many diseases that come back to manifest in people even after excellent treatments, of the most varied types. And another point to be reflected on is the permanence of fatal diseases´´. ´´Taking into account this type of influence of age and consequently genetics on the pathophysiology of inherited or not inherited diseases, an individual of a certain age will be submitted to a different therapeutic treatment from another with the same disease but who has a different age than through the research has shown a significant influence on the pathogenesis of the disease, therefore, will use another type of therapeutic substance, medicine, among others. This will certainly happen if the world scientific community scientifically proves these hypotheses through various research and scientific projects. So, the people need to have excellent innovation to the human expectancy  of life increase so much faster more and more´´. Rodrigo Nunes Cal Note/Obs: I thought each person could do their own friend request permission setting since Facebook's technology is so big, for example. Eu achava que cada pessoa poderia fazer sua própria configuração de permissão de solicitação de amizade já que a tecnologia do Facebook é muito grande, por exemplo.

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